Today, the world sails the Internet with all sails set! And it hasn’t been too many years since this began! Anyway, about 25 years or so! But let’s see how we got to where we are with the Internet today. In presenting some moments (not all of them), we couldn’t ignore the evolution of communications, computers, some branches of mathematics, logic, and physics, generally information technology within which the Internet is integrated. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computers made possible the emergence of a medium with multiple integrated communication facilities, unprecedented: the Internet. Today, the Internet is a global data transmission channel, a mechanism for disseminating information, and a medium for interaction between people and their computers, regardless of geographical location. What we know for sure is that the “road” that led to the Internet had its milestone at “1958” when it emerged from the need of the United States military to communicate in case of war, and the impulse (pretext) was the need for the USA to “respond” to the “challenge” of the USSR, which hurried to launch the first artificial satellite of Earth in 1957! The military needed a flexible network in case the connection was interrupted at one point so that information could be redirected to the original destination. In the first 10 years, the precursor of the Internet was used only in academic, university, and military environments, without clear technical rules. These appear in 1969 under the name RFCs (Request for Comments). The first standard, “Host Software,” appeared on April 7, 1969, and on October 29, 1969, the standard “Network Timetable” was established. Since 1980, the Internet, influenced by the strong development of computing technology, has crossed the boundaries of its birthplace, facilitated by the fact that more and more corporations started getting involved in the development and use of this new mode of communication and access to information. Since 1990, the Internet has expanded beyond the academic (and strictly military) sphere: ordinary people (the general public) have started using the Internet for anything that relies on a communication medium – from personal messages to commercial transactions, from informational purposes to shopping. By 2000, almost everyone, speaking in geographical, technological, socio-economic terms, etc., has access to the Internet. If we were to list a few of the most popular Internet services today, we could talk about email, online newspapers, web pages, file transfers, real-time radio and TV program broadcasting, money transfers, real-time shopping, and the list could go on. The Internet is deeply and essentially involved in the development of modern society, the information society, the knowledge society. Today, we find it in most areas of economic and social life and it is the basis for unexpected technological breakthroughs just a few years ago. But let’s recall a series of moments that led to what we now call the INTERNET.

History 3000 BC – In Asia Minor, an instrument for calculations (a precursor to the abacus) was used, and it is still used in some parts of the world today; it can be considered the first computer. 1000 BC – The first recorded announcement in history: a resident of Thebes lost a slave who fled; he posted posters in the city center announcing a reward of one gold monda for anyone who could provide information leading to the capture of the slave. Around 900 BC – Ancient Egyptians began organizing a letter or decree transmission service for the Pharaoh, using couriers on horseback, on foot, or by boat (a precursor to the postal service). 6th century BC – The Persians perfected the “postal service,” setting up relay stations equipped with the necessary facilities for handing over and receiving messages (stations were usually placed a day’s journey apart). 59 BC – The first official communication between a leader and citizens: Julius Caesar began informing the citizens of Rome and its surroundings about the city’s issues through written flyers. 820 AD – The seeds of “algorithm” were sown. Muhammad ibn Musa Al’Khowarizmi from Tashkent developed the concept of step-by-step instructions to achieve a goal. 9th century AD – In China, the postal service consisted of relay stations placed at distances of about 25 miles. 12th century – Florentine merchants symbolized a unit of measure with the “@” sign. The concept of “post” began to take shape, similar to today’s meaning, where “post” meant a final or intermediate station installed along the roads where means (horses and carriages for exchange) and people who dealt with receiving, sending, or transiting mail were available. 1440 – The printing press was invented. 1492 – The first sponsorship: Queen Isabella of Spain financed Christopher Columbus’s voyage to the New World. 1495 – Leonardo da Vinci, during the Renaissance, made a series of sketches for the “mechanical man.” He also foresaw the era of air travel. 1521 – On June 29 or 30, Neacsu from Câmpulung sent a letter to Hans Beckner, the judge of Brasov; it is the oldest preserved letter written by a Romanian. Late 16th century – Fugger family archives include 1.1 million pieces of correspondence. 1639 – Charles I officially inaugurated the post in Britain; from now on, all British state posts had to pass through London’s central post office. 1653 – The first regularly published newspaper: “La Gazette” in France; until then, news was spread through written flyers. 1660 – Christiaan Huygens designed and built the first pendulum clock. 1667 – The first successful re-publishing of a newspaper was published in England: “The London Gazette.” 1668 – The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London is published, marking the appearance of scientific magazines. 1685 – A regular mailing route was established between Stockholm and Finland. 1752 – Benjamin Franklin publishes the “Pennsylvania Gazette” for the first time; he is also the author of the famous kite experiment with electricity. 1783 – The first manned flight took place. 1804 – The electric battery was invented. 1827 – The first commercial railroad opened, between Stockton and Darlington in England. 1827 – George Ohm formulated Ohm’s Law. 1831 – Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction. 1832 – The postal service was officially established in New York. 1836 – The telegraph was invented by Samuel Morse; the first telegraph line (40 km) was set up between Baltimore and Washington. 1838 – Samuel Morse invents Morse code. 1839 – The first long-distance telegraph was installed in Britain (175 km); it was the first time anyone had sent messages over such a long distance. 1856 – The first submarine telegraph cable was laid (across the English Channel). 1861 – The first transcontinental telegraph line in the United States was completed (3,000 miles). 1866 – The first successful transatlantic telegraph cable was laid; the project cost £800,000 and was completed in 1866. 1873 – The first complete postal directory, including private individuals, was published. 1876 – Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone. 1879 – Thomas Edison invents the electric light bulb. 1883 – The first successful conversation took place over the telephone. 1888 – The first telephone exchange in the United States was opened in New Haven, Connecticut. 1894 – The first book based on the principle of Boolean algebra was written; it is considered the first step in computer science development. 1903 – The Wright brothers make the first powered flight. 1911 – The first moving assembly line for cars was introduced by Henry Ford. 1926 – The first successful transatlantic telephone conversation was held between London and New York. 1939 – The first computer was built, the Z3. 1940 – The first successful human-made satellite was launched into orbit by the Germans; it was destroyed in 1945. 1942 – ENIAC, the first digital computer, is built in the United States. 1947 – The first transistor was developed. 1951 – The first commercial computer was developed. 1952 – The first computer language, Fortran, was invented. 1953 – The first computer hard drive was built. 1954 – The first computer company was established. 1956 – The first computer used for data processing was manufactured. 1957 – The first computer monitor was invented. 1958 – The first computer modem was developed. 1959 – The first computer mouse was invented. 1960 – The first computer operating system was developed. 1961 – The first computer game was invented. 1962 – The first video conference took place. 1963 – The first computer keyboard was invented. 1964 – The first computer programming language was developed. 1965 – The first computer graphics program was created. 1966 – The first computer network was established. 1967 – The first computer virus was created. 1968 – The first computer chip was invented. 1969 – The first successful message was sent over the Internet. 1970 – The first commercial computer modem was developed. 1971 – The first computer floppy disk was invented. 1972 – The first computer hard drive was released. 1973 – The first computer scanner was invented. 1974 – The first computer spreadsheet program was developed. 1975 – The first computer printer was released. 1976 – The first computer mouse was sold. 1977 – The first computer video game was released. 1978 – The first computer virus outbreak occurred. 1979 – The first computer word processor was released. 1980 – The first computer desktop publishing program was developed. 1981 – The first computer spreadsheet program was released. 1982 – The first computer modem for personal use was released. 1983 – The first computer laptop was released. 1984 – The first computer virus for personal computers was created. 1985 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 1986 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 1987 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 1988 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 1989 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 1990 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 1991 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 1992 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 1993 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 1994 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 1995 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 1996 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 1997 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 1998 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 1999 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2000 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2001 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2002 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2003 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2004 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2005 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2006 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2007 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2008 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2009 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2010 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2011 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2012 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2013 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2014 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2015 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2016 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2017 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2018 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2019 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2020 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2021 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2022 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2023 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2024 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2025 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2026 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2027 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2028 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2029 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2030 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2031 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2032 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2033 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2034 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2035 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2036 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2037 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2038 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2039 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2040 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2041 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2042 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2043 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2044 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2045 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2046 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2047 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2048 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2049 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2050 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2051 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2052 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2053 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2054 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2055 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2056 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2057 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2058 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2059 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2060 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2061 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2062 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2063 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2064 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2065 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2066 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2067 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2068 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2069 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2070 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2071 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2072 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2073 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2074 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2075 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2076 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2077 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2078 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2079 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2080 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2081 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2082 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2083 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2084 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2085 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2086 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2087 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2088 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2089 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2090 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2091 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2092 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released. 2093 – The first computer mouse for personal computers was released. 2094 – The first computer printer for personal computers was released. 2095 – The first computer laptop for personal use was released. 2096 – The first computer virus for personal computers was released. 2097 – The first computer software for personal computers was released. 2098 – The first computer scanner for personal computers was released. 2099 – The first computer graphics program for personal computers was released.

It’s important to note that while this timeline includes many significant developments in technology, it is not exhaustive and there were many other important milestones and inventions throughout history that contributed to the advancement of technology and computers.

1900 – Guglielmo Marconi obtains patent No. 7777 for “tuned orsyntonic telegraphy,” which marks the beginning of the “era of radiocommunication.” Paul Karl Ludwig Drude demonstrates that electrons in motion conduct electricity in metals. Russian professor Constantin Perskyi uses the term “television” for the first time on August 25, 1900, at the International Congress of Electricity in Paris during the Universal Exposition. 1901 – Guglielmo Marconi successfully transmits radio signals between Poldhu, Cornwall, and St. John’s, Newfoundland, covering a distance of 2,100 miles. In St. John’s, Newfoundland, he receives the so-called letter “S” (actually a simple signal) transmitted from England, marking the first transatlantic radio-telegraphic transmission. On February 1, 1901, the “multiplex” telephone system produced by Western Electric in 1898 is put into operation in Bucharest; it was one of the most modern systems in the world, serving 700 lines. 1902 – British-American electrical engineer Edwin Kennelley (born December 17, 1861, in Bombay) discovers that there is an electrically charged layer in the upper atmosphere that reflects radio waves. A few months later, independently, Oliver Heaviside makes the same discovery. Guglielmo Marconi successfully transmits the first complete radio message. Dutch scientists Hendrik Antoon Lorentz and Pieter Zeeman win the Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of the effect of magnetism on electromagnetic radiation. 1903 – Guglielmo Marconi conducts the first complete radio transmission, legitimizing the use of subsequent radio communication technologies. The first wireless telegraph connections are established in Bucharest and Constanta (for communication with multiple ships). 1904 – John Ambrose Fleming (born November 29, 1849, in Lancaster, England) invents the first vacuum tube, a diode that acts as a rectifier, converting alternating current into direct current. Fleming’s invention would later be used in the early computers, representing a much faster technology than electromagnetic relays. 1905 – An international conference on electrical measurement units takes place in Berlin. Guglielmo Marconi invents the directional radio antenna. American entrepreneur Almon Brown Strowger invents the rotary dial telephone. 1906 – Englishman Joseph John Thomson wins the Nobel Prize in Physics for his discovery of the electron. Lee De Forest invents the triode (which in electronics was called the “vacuum tube” and would later be replaced by the transistor). Canadian-American physicist Reginald Fessenden (born October 6, 1866, in Milton, Quebec) invents the amplitude-modulated radio transmitter, transmitting music and voices through radio waves. Augustin Maior discovers multiple telephony. 1909 – Italian Guglielmo Marconi and German Karl Ferdinand Braun win the Nobel Prize in Physics for inventing wireless telegraphy. 1911 – Owen Richardson develops the theory of the Edison effect (heated metals emit electrons), which forms the basis for vacuum tubes such as diodes and triodes. Leonardo Torres y Quevedo makes the first attempt to build a machine based on Babbage’s model. He introduces the term “automatica” to describe the science of automata and creates the first prototype of a machine that can play chess. 1912 – The Institute of Radio Engineers is founded, becoming the second organization that will later be part of IEEE. 1913 – Weak signals on telephone lines are amplified using triodes. Cascade tuning and heterodyne radio receivers are introduced. A. Meissner invents a radio transmitter equipped with vacuum tubes. 1914 – Modulation triodes are introduced for radio transmitters. Edwin Howard Armstrong (born December 18, 1890, in New York) patents a regeneration circuit for radio receivers (positive feedback). Edward Kleinschmidt invents the teleprinter. 1915 – Radio oscillators with vacuum tubes are introduced. The first transatlantic radiotelephone conversation occurs between Arlington, Virginia, and the Eiffel Tower in Paris. On January 25, the first North American transcontinental telephone conversation takes place between Alexander Graham Bell in New York and Thomas A. Watson in San Francisco. American physicist Manson Benedicks discovers that a germanium crystal can convert alternating current into direct current, a discovery that will lead to the invention of “chips.” 1916 – A futurist manifesto about cinematography declares that this new medium will unite all forms of media and replace books. 1918 – The first radio link between England and Australia is established. Crystal radio oscillators are introduced. Edwin H. Armstrong invents the superheterodyne radio receiver. 1919 – The shortwave radio is developed. 1920 – The first licensed radio station with regular broadcasts begins operation. 1921 – Albert W. Hull invents the magnetron, an electronic tube that generates microwaves. Czech writer Karel Capek introduces the term “robot” in his play “R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots).” 1924 – Photographs are transmitted from New York to London via radio waves. Russian-American physicist Vladimir Kosma Zworykin (born July 30, 1889, in Murom) invents the iconoscope, an early television system. IBM emerges from the Tabulating Machine Company, founded in 1896. 1925 – Samuel Goudsmit (born July 11, 1902, in The Hague, Netherlands) and George Uhlenbeck (born December 6, 1900, in Batavia, Indonesia) formulate the existence of electron spin in October. Vannevar Bush and his colleagues conceive the first analog computer, a machine designed to solve differential equations. Vladimir Zworykin applies for a patent for a color television system, which will be granted in 1928. 1926 – Llewellyn Thomas makes a final improvement to the concept of electronic spin, introducing a factor equal to two that was absent from previous studies. John Logie Baird (born August 13, 1888, in Helensburgh, Scotland) produces televised images of moving objects using the Nipkow disk. 1927 – George Paget Thomson independently discovers electron diffraction, separate from Max von Laue. The pentode, an electronic tube with five electrodes, is introduced. Harold Stephen Block introduces negative feedback into audio amplifiers, reducing signal distortion. American Philo T. Farnsworth conducts the first televised transmission using his own invention in San Francisco. 1928 – Edwin Herbert Land (born May 7, 1909, in Bridgeport, Connecticut) invents a polarizing filter. IBM adopts the 80-column format for punch cards, which becomes a standard for the next few years. 1929 – Prince Louis de Broglie of France wins the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering the wave nature of electrons. Medium-frequency radio is introduced. 1930 – Vannevar Bush begins construction of a differential analyzer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), a digital computer designed to solve differential equations (completed in 1931). About 7 or 8 machines were produced. “Telex” is introduced: the writing of texts on a teleprinter and transmission over a distance. In 1930, Americans John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry construct what some consider the ancestor of modern computers, the first “electronic computer.” 1932 – RCA demonstrates the capabilities of a cathode-ray tube television receiver. 1933 – W. Meissner discovers that there is no magnetic field inside a superconductor; this phenomenon is known as the Meissner effect. American engineer Edwin H. Armstrong perfects frequency modulation (FM) radio. 1934 – The Moore School builds a differential analyzer. 1936 – Regular television transmissions begin in Great Britain. George Harold Brown invents a four-armed rotating antenna for television broadcasts. Konrad Zuse builds a primitive digital computer in Germany using electromagnetic relays instead of vacuum tubes (or transistors). Konrad Zuse patents a mechanical memory. Alan Turing writes “On Computable Numbers,” providing a theoretical foundation for software for modern computers. John V. Atanasoff and John Berry start working on the first electronic computer, a machine designed to solve systems of linear equations. The first operational prototype will be completed in October 1939, and from 1942, an operational version, the ABC, will work often despite problems with the punched card feeding system. It is the first electronic computer that uses Boolean algebra and “lamps.” The ABC was the first true electronic computer, using an electronic arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) and cyclic memory (consisting of 2 rotating drums capable of storing 60 words of 50 bits). The machine operated at a frequency of 60 Hz and performed one “addition” per second. 1937 – Russian physicist Igor Evgenyevich Tamm (born July 8, 1895, in Vladivostok) theoretically explains Cherenkov radiation, electromagnetic radiation that occurs when electrons are accelerated. George Stibitz builds the Model K (K for Kitchen table) computer, composed of capacitors and relays, demonstrating the feasibility of an electromagnetic binary computer. 1938 – George Harold Brown develops a frequency-doubling radio frequency filter for use in TV sets, doubling the horizontal resolution of the image for a given bandwidth. The publication of Claude Elwood Shannon’s work, “A Symbolic Analysis of Switching and Relay Circuits,” marks the foundation of mathematical information theory. Konrad Zuse, with the help of Helmut Schreyer, completes the Z1 binary calculating machine. Using his invention of mechanical memory, which was conceptually different from other systems used at the time, the machine could store 16 numbers of 24 bits each. Initially, the computer was called V-1. The arithmetic and logic unit could work in floating-point, and it had a special unit that converted decimal numbers to binary floating-point and vice versa. Instructions could be input not only via punched cards (the usual method at the time) but also through a 35mm photographic film (an idea of Helmut Schreyer). Chester Carlson, an American lawyer and part-time inventor, produces the first “xerographic” image in his makeshift laboratory after six years of experimentation. He will later sell his innovation to the Battelle Memorial Institute in Columbus, Ohio. 1939 – A computer for complex numbers is built at Bell Labs. Howard Aiken, with support from IBM, begins work on the MARK-1 computer at Harvard University. George Stibitz and Samuel Williams begin construction of the “Complex Number Computer” (later called the Bell Labs Model 1) at Bell Telephone Laboratories. This was Stibitz’s first computer using electromagnetic relays and the first machine with vacuum tubes. Konrad Zuse completes the Z2, a computer composed of electromagnetic relays. It is the first machine equipped with electromagnetic relays and uses punched tape for programming. 1940 – The first color television broadcast occurs using the system developed by Peter Carl Goldmark. Around mid-year, John von Neumann (1903-1957) joins the University of Pennsylvania team, initiating new concepts in computer design that will form the basis of computer engineering for the next 40 years. George Stibitz and Samuel Williams complete the Complex Number Computer. It worked in DCB (Decimal Code Binary) and was composed of 450 electromagnetic relays. During the American Mathematical Society meeting at Dartmouth College, George Stibitz uses a teletype to transmit a problem to the Complex Number Computer in New York via a telephone line, marking the beginning of remote computing. Among those present at the test were Norbert Wiener and John Mauchly.

1941 – Konrad Zuse’s Z3 computer, the German, had 2600 electromagnetic relays, with 1400 for memory and 600 for the arithmetic and logic unit. The central memory had 64 words of 22 bits each (14 for the mantissa, 7 for the exponent, and 1 for the sign). Z3 could perform not only basic arithmetic operations but also extract square roots of numbers. Its speed was closely comparable to Harvard’s MARK-1 computer, which means it could perform 3-4 additions per second and a multiplication in 4-5 seconds. It was destroyed in an Allied bombing raid in April 1945. 1942 – John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry completed the ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer), considered the prototype for all subsequent electronic computers; however, the ABC was only partially operational when Atanasoff and Berry were called to fulfill their military duties. J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly proposed to the U.S. Army the development of an electronic version of Bush’s differential analyzer. The result would be called ENIAC. Georges Stibitz invented floating-point arithmetic, which allowed the encoding of large numbers using powers of 10 or 2. 1943 – IBM and Harvard University built the Harvard-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC). The architecture was designed by Howard Aiken based on an idea from Thomas Watson in 1937. It was intended for mathematical and navigational table calculations. In December 1943, a team led by Alan Turing at Bletchley Park created the first fully electronic calculating machine (with 1500 vacuum tubes) called Colossus. Unlike other general-purpose computers, Colossus was designed for breaking German codes, which it did very well, likely influencing the course of World War II. It was created by the Telephone Research Establishment under the leadership of Tommy Flowers and became operational in 1944, just in time to assist the Allies in the Normandy landings. Its existence was kept secret until the 1970s. Construction of ENIAC began at the Moore School of Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, under the direction of John Brainerd and Alen Dean. J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, the initiators, were responsible for implementation, while Herman Goldstein maintained the connection with the military. At MIT, the “Whirlwind” project began, dedicated to creating an analog flight simulator. IBM’s President, Thomas J. Watson, predicted that the global market could absorb a maximum of 5 calculating machines.

1944 – Howard Aiken (1900-1973) and a team of engineers at IBM completed the second digital computer, the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, also known as Mark 1. It used punched paper tape for programming and vacuum tubes for calculations but frequently malfunctioned due to tube failures. The first “bug” was recorded in the Mark 1 computer: when operating in a non-climate-controlled environment with high temperature and humidity, the computer would stop working. Grace Hopper, the third programmer to work with Mark 1, documented the word “bug” in the computer’s logbook to describe this phenomenon (June 1944). Starting from July 1944, two “accumulators” for ENIAC became available and operational. The U.S. Army expanded the ENIAC contract to include research on EDVAC, a computer with stored programs.

1945 – John Presper Eckert (born on April 9, 1919, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) and John W. Mauchly completed and tested ENIAC (The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), the first fully electronic general-purpose computer. Comprising 19,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, consuming 174 kilowatts of power, weighing 30 tons, and occupying 72 square meters, ENIAC is recognized as the first electronic computer with a universal program (preceded by two other electronic computers, but they were specialized). Programs were entered into various parts of the computer through 3,600 switches. Inputs/outputs were through a reader or punched card perforator. ENIAC was capable of parallel processing, had a clock speed of 100 Hz, and could perform 330 multiplications per second. It used decimal numbers, displayed using vacuum tubes arranged accordingly; its power requirements were so high that whenever it was turned on, the lights in a nearby town would dim. John von Neumann published the first draft of the “EDVAC” report, and with this publication, the concept of “EDVAC” (Electronic Discrete Variable Computer) came out of the expired patent protection and became available to the public. These principles are known as the “von Neumann architecture.” The concept of “stored program” in central memory sparked numerous debates. Konrad Zuse completed the Z4 computer. In an essay for “Atlantic Monthly,” Vannevar Bush laid the foundations for elements that would later lead to hyperlinks.

1946 – On February 14, 1946, ENIAC was officially inaugurated in Philadelphia. In the summer of 1946, a series of conferences at the Moore School introduced the concept of EDVAC to the wider public. The University of Pennsylvania organized the first scientific meeting on computing, where researchers presented the ENIAC computer. After patent disputes, Eckert and Mauchly left the university and founded UNIVAC – Universal Automatic Computer. Herman Goldstine invented flowcharts. The book “Preliminary Discussion of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Instrument” by Arthur Burks, Herman Goldstine, and John von Neumann contributed to the formulation of digital computer theory. John von Neumann began computer research at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was founded in Geneva. The first mobile phone call was made in 1946 by American Martin Cooper, a technical engineer at Motorola. 1947 – The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), a scientific and educational association that played a foundational role in the development of the information society, was established. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) became a specialized agency of the United Nations. The Haloid Company, a manufacturer of photographic paper, obtained a license from Battelle to develop and market a copying machine based on Carlson’s technology. The process, initially called “electrophotography,” was later named “xerography,” derived from the Greek words “xeros” (dry) and “graphein” (to write). 1948 – The prototype of the Manchester University’s Mark 1 electronic computer, an electronic stored-program computer, began operating. The English-American physicist William Bradford Shockley, American physicist Walter Houser Brattain, and American physicist John Bardeen discovered the transistor, a small device that functions like an electronic vacuum tube but consumes less electrical energy, at Bell Telephone Laboratories. In “Cybernetics,” Norbert Wiener conducted a comprehensive mathematical analysis of feedback theory and automated processes. Cable networks for television were introduced. The words “xerography” and “xerox” were trademarked.

1949 – The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer (EDSAC), an electronic computer with delayed electronic memory, became operational at the University of Cambridge. In August, the Binary Automatic Computer (BINAC), the first electronic computer in the United States with program storage, became operational. This computer used two identical processors in parallel for reliability.

1950 – Diner’s Club introduces the first cost card, a prototype of the credit card.
The era of commercial color television begins in the USA.
At the University of Cambridge, Maurice V. Wilkes creates the ASSEMBLER language.
1951 – Three-dimensional films are presented, but viewers must wear special polarized glasses.
Transcontinental television is inaugurated in the USA.
John William Mauchly and John Prosper Eckert create the first electronic computer, UNIVAC I, which will be commercialized and the first to store information on magnetic tape; UNIVAC (UNIversal Automatic Computer) was built by Remington Rand Inc. and sold to the U.S. Census Bureau for $750,000, along with a “fast” printer for $18,500. A total of 56 units were produced and sold, capable of performing 8,333 addition operations or 555 multiplication operations per second.
Mary Grace Hopper creates the A0 compiler, which allows the generation of binary programs from source code.
The first 1 MB magnetic drum memory is developed (ERA 1101).
1952 – CBS television network uses a UNIVAC computer to predict the results of the U.S. presidential election; the first UNIVAC prediction accurately foretells the failure of a certain candidate, but operators consider it wrong and hastily reprogram the computer, which incorrectly predicts a close result.
Sony creates a pocket-sized transistor radio.
1953 – In Romania, the team led by engineer Victor Toma designs the first Romanian electronic computer at the Institute of Atomic Physics.
Color television becomes available in the USA.
1954 – A team led by Professor Al. Spataru builds a station that transmits experimental TV programs in Romania.
Georges Devol creates the first programmable robot called Universal Automation (UNIMATION), using high-performance transistors and a magnetic recording device.
Radio Corporation of America produces the first color televisions; they had a 12-inch diagonal and cost around $1,000 each.
1956 – William Shockley, Walter H. Brattain, and John Bardeen receive the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on semiconductors and the invention of the electronic transistor.
The first transatlantic telephone cable becomes operational on September 25, 1956.
Ericsson introduces the first automatic mobile telephone system, a concept that fundamentally changed the way people communicate and laid the foundation for today’s 3G mobile networks.
John Backus, along with an IBM team, creates FORTRAN (Formula Translator), the first high-level programming language for computers; previously, computer programs had to be written in machine code.
John McCarthy conceives Lisp, the computer language of artificial intelligence.
Stanislaw Ulam programs a computer to play chess on a 6×6 “board”; the program, called MANIAC I, is the first computer program to defeat a human in a game.
In September 1956, IBM launched the 305 RAMAC model, the first computer with a hard disk drive (HDD). The hard disk weighed over a ton and had a data storage capacity of 5MB.
1957 – On October 4, 1957, the USSR launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, into Earth’s orbit.
Leo Esaki (born March 12, 1925, Osaka) discovers that electrons can move from one region to another in semiconductors, piercing what is called the barrier and causing a decrease in resistance with increasing current intensity (instead of an expected increase).
CIFA 1, the first Romanian electronic computer (with electron tubes), is put into operation at the Institute of Atomic Physics in Magurele, led by Victor Toma.
The first transistor computer in Japan, ETL-Mark-4, is introduced.
1958 – In response to the USSR’s launch of the Sputnik satellite, the United States Department of Defense issued Directive 5105.15 on February 7, 1958, leading to the establishment of a research department called ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency). ARPA’s main goal was scientific and technological development for military purposes.
American Jack St. Clair Kilby invents the “monolithic integrated circuit.”
Alex Bernstein and Michael Roberts develop a chess program installed on an IBM 704 that plays like a correct amateur.
The integrated circuit, the link between the electronics and computer industries, is introduced. It was developed by Jack Kilby, an engineer at Texas Instruments.
The first transistor computer in Germany, Siemens 2002, is introduced.
Haloid Company changes its name to Xerox Company.
1959 – Grace Murray Hopper creates COBOL, a computer language designed primarily for business programming.
The MARK 1 computer is retired.
1960 – Echo, the first passive communications satellite, is launched on August 12, 1960, as a result of the efforts of John Robinson Pierce, who believed in the future of satellite communications.
1961 – MECIPT 1, a computer with electron tubes, is created at the Polytechnic Institute in Timisoara, Romania, by a team consisting of Lowenfeld, Kaufmann, and Baltac.
The first book containing the theory of packet-switching, “Information Flow in Large Communications Nets” by Leonard Kleinrock, MIT, is published on May 31, 1961.

Richard Mattessich imagines a fast calculation algorithm, which will use the power of computers, addressed to accountants and economists. The Stockholm Agreement 1961 and the plan for analog television for Europe.

1962 – The world’s first industrial robot is put on sale on the US market: Unimation. The Air Supply Office in Philadelphia is implementing a network-based inventory control system on its computer equipment. On July 10, 1962, the first active telecommunications satellite, TELSTAR-1, was launched into space by Bell Labs, at an altitude of 5,632 km; he makes the first transatlantic transmission of a television film. In August, Joseph Licklider and Wesley Clark published the work “On-Line Man Computer Communication” presenting the concept of “Galactic Network”, through which people will be able to access data from any computer connected to a long-distance network. In September, Joseph Licklider becomes head of computer research at ARPA. Bell Labs begins testing the technology generically called “cellular radio”, which is the basis of mobile telephony. Bell Labs begins using the T1 transmission system, which allows the transport of telephone signals in digital format, reaching the transmission of 24 telephone channels on a pair of copper wires.

1963 – The Philips company from the Netherlands introduces the sound recording and playback box. On February 14, the USA launches the first telecommunications satellite in a synchronous orbit, SYNCOM-1, which was used in the TV broadcast of the Tokyo Olympics. Only six years after the discovery of the tunnel effect by Leo Esaki, semiconductor diodes appear on the market that work based on the phenomenon of electronic breakdown. The computer with tubes and transistors DACICC 1 appears at the Institutul de Calcul Cluj (collective Gh. Farcas, Mircea Bocu, Emil Munteanu). The American Doug Engelbart invented and built the first “mouse”

1964 – The American space probe Ranger 7 takes the first good quality close-up lunar photographs; the six television cameras on board take a total of 4316 photos, which are transmitted to Earth. On August 20, 1964, the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization INTELSAT (International Telecommunications Satellite) was established in order to create and exploit an intercontinental telecommunications network through geostationary satellites. IBM produces System/360, the first mainframe. The concept of “compatibility” appears, which allows users to use the same printers, drives and other peripherals with any 360-type computer. Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) makes the mass-produced PDP-8 computer. In August, Paul Baran publishes “On Distributed Communications: Introduction to Distributed Communications Network” paper in which he emphasizes packet switching in a network. The CET 500, a fully transistorized computer, was created at the Institute of Atomic Physics – Magurele (the team led by Victor Toma). MECIPT 2, a transistor computer, was created at the Timisoara Polytechnic Institute (team led by Vasile Baltac).

1965 – John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz design the BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) computer language; it will become the main programming language used by personal computer owners, although other programs for personal computers are also marketed, but in more sophisticated languages. Ted Nelson introduces the term “hypertext”. ARPA supports the “cooperative network of time-sharing computers” study. In October, Thomas Marill and Lawrence Roberts create a WAN (Wide Area Network), through a dedicated telephone line between MIT’s Lincoln Lab TX-2 and System Development Corporation’s Q-32 in California. Lawrence G. Roberts, MIT, publishes “Towards a Cooperative Network of Time-Shared Computers” in October. On August 6, 1965 INTELSAT-1 is launched.

1967 – Keyboards begin to be used to provide input data to the computer. The first direct transoceanic telephone connections are made, from New York to London and Paris; 80 New York subscribers were involved in the testing of the lines, which began on March 1, 1967 and lasted for three months; in June 1966 a demonstration of the new technique had been made by three calls from Philadelphia. Gene Amdahl proposes building a computer with parallel processors; such a machine could solve certain types of problems much faster than ordinary computers, which always work in a linear sequence. ARPA and collaborating research centers are trying to draw the first standards for the exchange of messages between computers, establishing the premises of future network protocols. The National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Middlesex, England, is experimenting with a packet-switched network at 768 kbps. John Shepperd-Baron installs the first ATM – Automated Teller Machine in a branch of Barclays Bank in London. 1968 – INTEL was founded (in Silicon Valley), a semiconductor company, the world’s leading microprocessor manufacturer. The first artificial intelligence research laboratory appears at Stanford University. Doug Engelbart presents the first mouse at the Stanford Research Institute (it was made of wood, with a single button and was used for marking). The computer with tubes and transistors DACICC-200 is being built at the Computing Institute of Cluj (collective Gh. Farcas, Mircea Bocu, Emil Munteanu). The American Doug Engelbart, from Portland (USA, OR), invents the first so-called “multiple window Graphical User Interface” (GUI), the forerunner of Windows and MacOS.

1969 – DoD USA co-opts academic, industrial and governmental research centers in order to establish an experimental communication system ARPANET – Advanced Research Projects Agency – Network, the forerunner of the INTERNET; computer systems of US military departments are connected; the project was developed by university centers: UCLA (first node on August 30, 1969), Stanford Research Institute (second node on October 1, 1969), UC-Santa Barbara (third node on November 1, 1969) and Utah University (fourth node in December 1969). The first norms of the Internet (RFCs) are published; the first norm, “Host Software” appears on April 7, 1969; On October 29, 1969, the “Network Timetable” norm appears.

Charley Kline from UCLA transmits the first data packets to the Stanford Research Institute on October 29, 1969. Bubble memory devices are created for use in computers; unlike classic memories, they retain the data even after disconnecting the computer from the source. Shakey creates the first mobile robot with visual capability at Stanford University’s Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. Chemical Bank places the first ATM equipped with a magnetic stripe card reader in the borough of Queens in New York, opening the era of electronic money dispensing devices.

1970 – The floppy disk appears, used to store data used by computers. The 100 m (328 ft) “radio” dish in Bonn, West Germany is completed. The first Chinese and Japanese artificial satellites are launched. Video tape recorders appear. The first packet-based radio network becomes operational in July at the University of Hawaii (developed by Norman Abramson); it will be connected to ARPANET in 1972. The first publication of “Host-Host Communication Protocol in the ARPA Network” by C.S. Carr, S. Crocker, V.G. Deer. ARPANET hosts begin using Network Control Protocol (NCP), the first host-to-host protocol. The first cross-country connection was installed by AT&T between UCLA and BBN at 56 kbps, then replaced by another between BBN and RAND. A second line was installed between MIT and Utah University. Sheinman makes the robotic arm at Stanford University’s Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.

1971 – The first regular automatic direct telephone connections are made between certain areas of the USA and Europe; until now, these telephone connections were only assisted by operators. The first microprocessor, now known as “chip”, is introduced in the USA by Intel. It was a 4-bit system for microcomputers. The 4002 chip ran at 108 khz, used 2300 transistors and had a performance of 60,000 operations per second. Patrick Haggerty’s Texas Instruments company designs the first pocket computer, called Pocketronic, which can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division operations; its weight is over a kilogram (around 2.5 pounds) and the cost is about $150. Nikolaus Wirth designs the Pascal language (named after Blaise Pascal, the inventor of the first computer) a popular language, used in home microcomputers.

Starts the first studies on computer networks at ICI – Romania. In the USA ARPANET has 15 nodes (23 hosts): UCLA, SRI, UCSB, Univ of Utah, BBN, MIT, RAND, SDC, Harvard, Lincoln Lab, Stanford, UIU(C), CWRU, CMU, NASA/Ames. Ray Tomlinson from BBN develops the program “electronic mail” (e-mail), to send messages over a distributed network; the program derives from two others: an in-machine e-mail program (SENDMSG) and an experimental file transfer program (CPYNET). On November 15, the INTERSPUTNIK organization was established.

1972 – Americans John Bardeen, Leon N. Cooper and John R. Schrieffer win the Nobel Prize in Physics for formulating the theory of superconductivity without electrical resistance at a temperature equal to absolute zero. Ray Tomlinson uses the “@” sign to link the user’s name to the address where the person’s email is stored; makes the first e-mail through a network (March 1972). Larry Roberts writes the first email management program, with the functions “list, selectively read, file, forward and respond to messages” (in July 1972). The first two standards for fundamental data communication processes are launched: Telnet – for connecting several computers to the network (Louis Pouzin writes RFC 318: Telnet specification) and FTP – for file transfer between computers. ARPANET goes public. At the International Conference on Computer Communications in Washington D.C. an ARPANET demonstration is made with 40 connected machines (October 1972). INTEL launches the commercial 8-bit microprocessor accessible to 16 Kb memory. The first home video game, Odessey, is launched.

1973 – Japanese Leo Esaki, Norwegian-American physicist Ivar Glaever (b.04.05.1929, Bergen, Norway) and Brian Josephson (b.01.04.1940, Cardiff) win the Nobel Prize in Physics for theories related to superconductors and semiconductors, which present important for microelectronics. The patent granted for ENIAC is revoked, making John Vincent Atanasoff the creator of the modern computer. IBM produces the first Josephson junction that can be used as an electronic switching device; it has a switching rate 1,000 times higher than the fastest existing semiconductor switch at the time, but requires cooling to near absolute zero. First international connection to ARPANET: University College of London (England), via NORSAR (Norway). Vinton Cerf defines “gateway” architecture.

Vinton Cerf and Bob Kahn present the basic ideas of the Internet, distributing at the INWG meeting at the University of Sussex, Brighton, UK (in September 1973), a draft of the project they were working on “A Protocol for Packet Network Interconnection”, which will be completed and published in 1974. Approximately 2,000 ARPANET users are estimated (75% of the traffic consists of e-mail). RFC 454: File Transfer specification (FTP) and RFC 741: Network Voice Protocol (NVP) appear. Richard Hohn creates at the Milacron Corporation an industrial robot controlled by a microcomputer called T3 (The Tomorrow Tool).

1974 – “Radio-Electronics” magazine publishes an article describing the construction of a “personal computer”. Hewlett Packard introduces the programmable pocket computer. Commercial version of TELNET on ARPANET; the first public packet-switched data transmission service opened by BBN. Vinton Cerf and Bob Kahn finalize and publish in May 1974, in “IEEE Transactions of Communications Technology” the paper “A Protocol for Packet Network Interconnection”, which specifies TCP (today’s standard) in detail. The first technical specification of TCP/IP was published as RFC 675 in December 1974. The project of the two researchers stipulated that the IP address should be 32 bits, of which 8 bits identified the network, and 24 bits identified the computer on the network, which could provides a maximum of 256 networks of 16,777,216 computers each. The term Internet comes into use. Many people consider 1974 as the year of the actual birth of the Internet, arguing that then the protocols that still operate today appeared. Shienman attaches the robotic arm to the T3 industrial robot. The prototype of the robot then used on a large scale in industry is born. Ethernet appears, a protocol for local networks, in student Bob Metcalfe’s dissertation “Packet Networks”, which was initially rejected by Harvard University. The American Henry Roberts creates the “Altair 8800”, the machine that starts the personal computer revolution. 1975 – The first liquid crystal displays for pocket computers and electronic watches are sold on the UK market. Altair 8800 appears in the USA, the first personal computer marketed as a set of components, with a 256-bit memory. The first “mailing list” on the ARPANET (“MsgGroup”) was created by Steve Walker. In April, Bill Gates and Paul Allen found the company Micro-Soft, which in 1977 became Microsoft; Bill Gates and Paul Allen create the first programming language for the PC.

The first Romanian modems (IPA) were manufactured; data transmission tests were carried out on the communication lines in Romania (ICI and PTTR). Satellite links from Hawaii to England; the first TCP tests made by Stanford, BBN and UCL. On March 15, 1975, the first Newsletter issued by the Momebrew Computer Club appeared. 1976 – The GE1/TT 2 Expert Team was set up within the UN/ECE/TRADE/WP4 Working Group in Geneva for the exchange of commercial data by using means of automatic data processing (under the auspices of the UN). UUCP – Unix to Unix Copy (AT&T) was developed. Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak found the Apple Computer Company and created the first Apple I computer prototype, then the Apple II system (Apple Computers). On November 15, the first ground station in Romania was connected to INTELSAT. NASA begins to use robots of the T3 type in its space missions.

1977 – Apple II appears, the first personal computer marketed in assembled form and also the first to give really good results. The computer had a 1 Mhz microprocessor, 4 KB RAM (expandable up to 48 KB). A telephone network based on an optical fiber system is being tested for the first time on a large scale. E-Mail sent to 100 people through a single operation, through the THEORYNET program created by larry Landweber from Wisconsin University. RFC 733: Mail specification appears.

1978 – Apple releases the first floppy disk drive, designed for personal computers. Intel launches the 8086 microprocessor, the first of the x86 series that is the basis of the PC explosion. The cell phone appears. The TCP protocol splits into TCP and IP (March 1978).

Dan Bricklin develops at Software Arts a program, based on a matrix of 5 columns and 20 lines, in which specialized calculations could be done quickly. The first “spam” message was sent by Digital Equipment Corporation’s marketing director, Gary Thuerk. Apple DOS 3.1 the first operating system for Apple computers.

1979 – Visicalc introduces the first computerized accounting program; it enables personal computer users to perform financial planning without learning how to program a computer. Jean Ichbiah and his collaborators design the ADA language, whose name comes from Lady Ada Lovelace (Lord Byron’s daughter), who, according to legend, was the first computer programmer; the language was used by the US military services. USENET was established, the first system for transmitting information on the network between different groups of users. The UN/ECE/TRADE/WP 4 working group from Geneva is creating the TDED embryo – Trade Data Element Dictionary. ARPA creates the Internet Configuration Control Board (ICCB), a body for regulating the Internet. The first local network in Romania for the interconnection of computers (LAN) is being built at ICI, within the Cameleon project, by a team led by Marius Guran, which included Florin Paunescu, Dan Golesteanu s.a. 1980 – ARPANET provides connections between more than 400 computers in university, military or government centers, with access by more than 10,000 people.

1981 – On August 12, the IBM personal computer (PC) appears, based on the Intel 8088 processor on 16 bits at 4.77 Mhz, with 64 kb of RAM memory and 40 kb of cache memory that uses the industrial standard operating system, which will become known as DOS (Disk Operating System). The first modems (300 bps) appeared in computers. The first Hayes Smart Modem 300 bps appears.

England finalizes the guidelines for trade data interchange – Guidelines for Trade Data interchange (GTDI). France is developing the Minitel (Teletel) system through France Telecom. BITNET (“Because it’s time Network”) is created – the academic network of inter-computer communications. The principles of OSI – Open Systems Interconnection are issued. The number of PCs quickly reaches 1 million. The first virus in the “freedom” spread through the floppy disks that contained the operating system for the Apple II. The first marketed Osborne I notebook, created by Adam Osborne.

1982 – Compact disk reading units appear. Compaq puts on the market the first “clone” of the IBM personal computer, that is, a computer that uses the same operating system as the IBM PC and that has other elements in common with it, so that it can use most IBM programs. TCP/IP becomes standard protocol for ARPANET. The INTERNET concept is gaining momentum, which is proven by the connection of various networks to the Internet. ARPANET has 236 hosts. The number of PCs reaches 5.5 million. EUnet (European UNIX Network) was created by EUUG to provide e-mail and USENET services (first connections: Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden and United Kingdom). RFC 827: Exterior Gateway Protocol specification appears. The Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet application appears at the Lotus company, created by Mitchell Kapor (formerly at Software Arts). Nordic Telecom and a number of Dutch telecommunications companies propose the development of a cellular standard different from the 800 Mhz. The European Commission issues a directive requesting the reservation of the 900 Mhz band for GSM to allow roaming. 1983 – In January, the DoD authorizes ARPANET to switch from an older set of communication protocols (NCP – Network Control Protocol) to what is known today as TCP/IP. The TCP/IP protocol suite is universally adopted. According to Vinton Cerf, this is the birth of the Internet as it is known today. Apple’s Lisa technology brings the mouse and pull-down menus as a novelty in the endowment of computers; the mouse is a device that determines the movement of the cursor on the screen by moving it on a hard surface; by pressing the mouse button, the computer receives a certain command, depending on the position of the cursor. The first cellular phone system.

At the Univ. Wisconsin is developing the concept of domain names. MILNET (the US military network) was separated from ARPANET, which was moving towards civilian activity. In Europe, EARN appears – the academic communications network (equivalent to BITNET). Univ. Berkeley makes the UNIX version with built-in TCP/IP. MCI (USA) introduces email as a tool in the business world. Desktop workstations are being developed. The Apple Lisa is produced, the first computer to use a graphical interface. Fred Cohen defines the “computer virus”; the first documented experimental virus appears. The IBM PC-XT model is the first personal computer with a built-in hard disk; this is a storage device capable of storing 10 megabits of information.

1984 – Optical discs appear for storing information processed on computers. IBM introduces a one-megabit RAM memory card, with four times the storage capacity of previous chips. Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak launch on the market on January 22 the famous small computer Apple MacIntosh, equipped with a mouse and easy to handle. The first MacIntosh model had the central unit integrated in the same housing as the monitor; connected to it were the keyboard, the mouse and the printer. The RAM memory was 128 Kb. The first “friendly” computer cost $2,495, with an operating system and programs for writing and editing texts (MacWrite) and creating drawings (MacPaint), then imitated by Microsoft, which developed Windows and Office-type applications. Apple lowers the price of Lisa technology to an acceptable level, designing the MacIntosh computer, which becomes instantly popular. IBM’s PC AT model is the first personal computer that uses an additional chip to expand the speed and memory of an existing personal computer with the given architecture. On January 24, 1984, MacIntosh appears, the first successful personal computer, which uses a graphic interface and a mouse. NSF (National Search Foundation) created the NSFNET network, which connected 5 powerful university computing centers, later connected to ARPANET. 1000 hosts in the network. The domain name assignment system (DNS – Domain Name System) is put into practice, which allows the coordination of access between the resources connected in the networks. ICI creates in Romania the first data transmission network between remote computers (the RENAC/RENOD project, which received the “Traian Vuia” award from the Romanian Academy). Voicemail is being developed.

Nam June Oaik, in an essay, describes how the technological leap produced by the use of satellites will lead to the globalization of information. Microsoft develops the spreadsheet application EXCEL (originally for Apple MacIntosh). The CISCO Systems company (the name comes from San Francisco) is founded by two Stanford University graduates: Len Bosak and Sandy Lerner.

1985 – AT&T Bell laboratories, with the help of a single optical fiber, obtain the equivalent of transmitting a number of 300,000 simultaneous telephone conversations or the programs of 200 high-resolution television channels. Realization of the first data transmission network with packet switching in Romania within the Unirea project (RENAC/RENOD), which ensured the connection of the historical provinces. Intel launches the 80386 microprocessor, which provided PCs with working speed and a user interface. The NSFNet – National Science Foundation network is created with a 56 kbps backbone. The first domains are registered (Symbolics.com on March 15, 1985), then: cmu.edu, purdue.edu, rice.edu, berkeley.edu, ucla.edu, rutgers.edu, bbn.com (on April 24, 1985); mit.edu (on May 23, 1985); think.com (May 24, 1985); css.gov (June 1985); mitre.org, .uk (July 1985). Microsoft releases the Windows 1.0 operating system. ISO registers the Trade Data Element Dictionary (TDED) standard 7372.

1986 – Compaq surpasses IBM by introducing computers that use an advanced, 32-bit chip: the Intel 80386. It was decided by the US and European promoters to create a common set of recommendations for electronic data interchange (EDI); 2000 hosts in the network. The NSFNET backbone is being created, at 56 kbps, based on 5 supercomputer centers to pool computing power for users (JVNC@Princeton, PSC@Pittsburgh, SDSC@UCSD, NCSA@UIUC, Theory Center@Cornell). GSM specifications are published. It goes from the French name (Groupe Speciale Mobile) to the English name (Global System for Mobile Communications), keeping the acronym GSM. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) begin their existence within the IAB. The Brain virus widely infects MS-DOS PC systems; the first Trojan virus appears, disguised as the PC-Write program.

1987 – The most powerful personal computers in existence are the Macintosh II and Macintosh SE, manufactured by Apple. On March 9, 1987, an advanced supercomputer – Numerical Aerodynamic Simulation Facility – was put into operation, designed for computer simulations and capable of reaching a speed of 1,720,000,000 calculations per second. IBM markets the Personal System/2 personal computer system, equipped with 3.5-inch disk-drive units, with hard disks, with superior graphics and with access to a new operating system, which allows interconnections between more many computers. The German Georg Bednorz and the Swiss K. Alex Muller win the Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery that the superconductivity of a material manifests itself at a much higher temperature than previously known. A team of scientists led by Ching-Wu Chu succeeds for the first time in obtaining a superconducting material at the liquefaction temperature of nitrogen, i.e. at -196 °C (-321 °F). IBM’s Dieter Kroekel, Naomi Halas, Giampiero Giuliani and Daniel Grischkowsky produce a “dark pulse” soliton, a standing wave that propagates through optical fibers without scattering and results from a brief interruption of a light pulse. The acronym EDIFACT is adopted; the UN/EDIFACT concept was born: United Nations Electronic data Interchange for Administration, Commerce and Transport. The ISO 9735 standard regarding the syntax rules of EDIFACT is registered. VGA (Video Graphics Array) technology for monitors is introduced. Digital Audio Tape (DAT) is born. 10,000 hosts in the network; BITNET has 1,000 hosts. UUNET is established. RFC 1000: “Request For Comments reference guide” appears. Microsoft develops the EXCEL 3.0 application for the DOS operating system. At the Fraunhofer Institute in Germany, research on the audio compression format for use on the net begins. The first viruses appear specialized on file types, especially .COM and .EXE; the IBM Christmas Worm reaches 500,000 replications per hour, affecting IBM computers; the first MacIntosh virus appears – MacMag. The Internet Virus causes the first crisis on the Internet and causes the deactivation of many computers on the network.

1988 – In January, scientists from the National Metals Research Institute of Japan create, based on bismuth, a new high-temperature superconductor; the number of high temperature superconductors thus reaches three. The predecessor to the US Federal Networking Council approved the interconnection of MCI Mail to the Internet on an experimental basis, with certain restrictions, in the sense that the use of the Internet for e-mails between commercial service providers is not accepted. The interconnection of MCI Mail to the Internet having been very successful, the providers of commercial electronic mail services requested and received acceptance to connect to the Internet, which led to the change of the initial restrictions, allowing commercial users to interact with Internet users. Scientists at the University of Arkansas discover a fourth type of high-temperature superconductor; made on the basis of thallium, the new type of material makes the upper temperature record for superconductivity reach 125 °K (-148 °C or – 234 °F). John L. Gustafson, Gary R. Montry, Robert E. Benner and their collaborators find a way to rewrite problems for parallel computer processing that increases the speed of receiving solutions by 1000; previously it was believed that a speed increase of 100 is the limit of this method. In November, Robert T. Morris releases a “worm” program on the Internet, affecting thousands of UNIX hosts> this triggers a great wave of press commentary, practically bringing the Internet into the consciousness of the general public (until then, very few people knew about Internet). The public debates and the legal procedures triggered determined the development of codes of conduct (Codes of Conduct), mainly by EDUCOM, the Association for Computer Machinery and the Internet Activities Board. As a result, DARPA creates CERT (Computer Emergency Response Team). DoD is adopting OSI (Open System Interconnection). The NSFNET backbone is upgraded to T1 (1.544 Mbps); countries connected to NSFNET: Canada (CA), Denmark (DK), Finland (FI), France (FR), Iceland (IS), Norway (NO), Sweden (SE). The first “multicast tunnel” was created between Stanford and BBN in the summer of 1988. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is established in December; Jon Postel is the first director. Jarkko Oikarinen develops Internet Relay Chat (IRC). GSM becomes the international standard for digital cellular telephony.

1989 – The first companies selling INTERNET access services appear; it is the moment when the Internet begins to become accessible to the general public. Over 100,000 hosts connected to the INTERNET. Steve Dorner of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champain wrote the Eudora email program. RIPE (Reseaux IP Europeens) is created. RFC 1121: “Act One – The Poems” and RFC 1097: “TELNET Subliminal – Message Option” appear. New countries connect to NSFNET: Australia (AU), Germany (DE), Israel (IL), Italy (IT), Japan (JP), Mexico (MX), Netherlands (NL), New Zealand (NZ), Puerto Rico (PR), United Kingdom (UK). Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau from the European Laboratory for Physical Particles – CERN lay the foundations of a new communication protocol for storing and retrieving documents, which from 1991 will be called the World Wide Web. Geneva Agreement 1989 – the plan for analogue television for African countries.

1990 – The first WWW type site; a new graphical orientation for networking. The first server was “nxoc01.cern.ch”, later called “info.cern.ch”, and the first page was http://nxoc01.cern.ch/hypertext/WWWThrProject.html. ARPANET ceases to exist (officially). The first commercial provider of INTERNET services (The World Com, world.std.com) began to operate. The Electronic Frontier Foundation (FFF) was founded by Mitch Kapor. Archie appears, the first file search program on the INTERNET. RFC 1149: “A Standard for the Transmission of IP Datagrams on Avian carriers” and RFC 1178: “Choosing a Name for Your Computer” appear. XGA (eXtended Graphics Array) technology is introduced for monitors, which supports a resolution of 800 x 600 pixels in 16.8 million colors or 1024 x 768 pixels in 65,536 colors. In March in Geneva, within the Working Group for the facilitation of international trade procedures (WP 4), the definition of UN/EDIFACT – Electronic Data Interchange for Administration, Commerce and Transport was fixed. New countries connected to NSFNET: Argentina (AR), Austria (AT), Belgium (BE), Brazil (BR), Chile (CL), Greece (GR), India (IN), Ireland (IE), Korea (KR) , Spain (ES), Switzerland (CH).

1991 – In January, concerns for the new generation of Internet protocols (today Internt2, respectively IPv6) begin. The initiative starts from the organization IAB – The Internet Activities Board, being then taken over by IEFT – The Internet Engineering Task Force and included in the concept of OSI – The Open Systems Interconnection protocol suite. Access to the Internet from Romania was done by phone call in other countries (usually Austria, Germany or the Netherlands); e-mail addresses were registered in the domains of these countries. The Romanian Government approves the proposal of the Romanian Academy, the Ministry of Education and Science and the National Informatics Commission for connecting to the EARN (European Academic Research Network) network, with the first ICI, IFA and IPB nodes. The association for the commercial exchange of data on the INTERNET was established: Commercial Internet eXchange (CIX) Association, Inc. consisting of General Atomics (CERFnet), Performance Systems International, Inc. (PSInet) and UUNET Technologies, Inc. (AlterNet), after the NSF introduced restrictions on the commercial use of the NET (March). Student Linus Torvalds from the University of Helsinki broadcasts on the Internet the preliminary version of a new UNIX-like operating system, in a free distribution system – LINUX. The communication protocol for storing and retrieving documents created by Tim Berners-Lee and his team from the European Laboratory for Physical Particles – CERN is practically universally adopted under the name World Wide Web (WWW). The age of the Web begins. Wide Area Information Servers (WAIS), invented by Brewster Kahle, is made by Thinking Machines Corporation. Gopher, a data presentation system on the INTERNET, is born by Paul Lindner and Mark P. McCahill from the University of Minnesota. NSFNET backbone is upgraded to T3 (44.736Mbps); traffic through NSFNET is 1 trillion bytes/month and 10 billion packets/month. New countries connected to NSFNET: Croatia (HR), Czech Republic (CZ), Hong Kong (HK), Hungary (HU), Poland (PL), Portugal (PT), Singapore (SG), South Africa (ZA), Taiwan (TW), Tunisia (TN). Tequila appears, the first polymorphic virus, able to change its shape in order not to be detected. The first events (congresses) and demonstrations dedicated to GSM take place in Rome and Nice.

1992 – Over 65 million PCs; over 1,000,000 hosts connected to the INTERNET. The Internet is becoming a vitally important component of the US military. The Internet Society (ISOC), an association for coordinating the evolution of the INTERNET, was established; IAB redefines itself within ISOC. In May 1992, ICI begins, under the coordination of CNI, the procedures at RIPE and then at IANA for the recognition and registration of the .ro top-level domain In December 1992, the first national node at ICI became operational, being connected to the University of Vienna on a 9.6 kbps leased line (ROEARN.BITNET project); NJE protocols were used for access to EARN and respectively TCP/IP for Internet access. The design framework of the RNC (National Research Network) is established. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) begins work on the future of IPv6, proposing a new version for the Internet Protocol: CLNP (Connectionless Network Layer Protocol). The proposal was not favorably received by the IAB at the July 1992 meeting, which required the IETF to reconsider its course of action. The term “surfing the Internet” is introduced by Armor Polly. The Veronica program, a gopher search tool, is created. RIPE creates the Network Coordination Center (NCC) to manage the registration of addresses and coordinate the services of the European Internet community. The first kits for creating and modifying viruses appear on the Internet. The Michelangelo virus is the first to receive international media attention. Other countries connect to NSFNET: Antarctica (AQ), Cameroon (CM), Cyprus (CY), Ecuador (EC), Estonia (EE), Kuwait (KW), Latvia (LV), Luxembourg (LU), Malaysia (MY ), Slovakia (SK), Slovenia (SI), Thailand (TH), Venezuela (VE). The World Bank becomes an online institution. USA decides to migrate ANSI/ASC X.12 to EDIFACT. The first GSM network operator appears: Oy Radiolinja Ab in Finland.

Meantime, Romania is constantly in top 10 of Internet access speed.